Page 2.

A closer look at the Uto-Aztec connection


LIKE ATHAPASKAN Navajos and Apaches later, certain Uto-Aztecs such as Shoshoni and Chemehuevi wended far downcoast before moving inland. Chemehuevi concentrated in the Mojave Desert. Shoshoni lingered in SE California before gravitating far northeast. Toltecs and Aztecs wandered successively inland along the Sac-&-Fox fur-trade trail to the Great Lakes, whence Algonquin ancestors had wandered down the St. Lawrence east. Toltecs and Aztecs chose to wander down the Mississippi south. Sac-&-Fox and other Algonquin tribes sustained contact with the Amur through the Fox (Aleutian) Islands, Kodiak their hub.

Shoshoni = Shan-Shan, the Tarim-Oasis town and kingdom whose Chinese name changed to Navadjo with the Tibetan conquest 663 A.D. Shoshoni identified themselves by that vicinity though 12 centuries later they could remember only that they came from "beyond the setting sun." Since they had known their natal city as Shan-Shan they departed it in or before 663.

Navajos identified by the same vicinity but as Navadjo. Ethel followed up the labors of Emil Pettitot published 1876-89 to trace a long, perilous escape of Navajos and other Uighur-Turkish-speaking Athapaskans of the southern Tarim basin whom the Xi-Xia emperor had conscripted into his army which Genghis Khan defeated 1227, to the Amur mouth, whence they sailed to America 1233 with kidnapped Tungus wives.

IF UNIQUE CHIMU Chan Chan of northern Peru should derive from Shan-Shan also, it culminated a slower migration than Shoshoni by a southern instead of northern route. Rectangular high-walled compounds of this 12-sq.-mi. city founded in the 12th century on the north side of the Moche mouth replicate Sui Chang-an as rebuilt to specifications of the great architect/engineer Yu-wen Kai [Arthur Wright 1978] and also Shan-Shan as the Sui bade Samarqand chief Kang Yen-dien rebuild it c.600 A.D. [Stewart 1991]. Tarim-oasis irrigation enabled 30,000 population at Chan Chan on the Peruvian desert, where an annual bean race to the Moon Temple [Gerdt Kutscher 1949] paralelled the Pueblo Bonito race to the temple atop Mesa Verde. Founders of Chan Chan began their exodus between 600 and 663 (before Shan-Shan's name-change), perhaps extending the failed expedition Sui Emperor Yang-di sent to pacify Liu-chiu Islands 610 or perhaps at the fall of the dynasty 617, maybe at the Tibetan conquest 663. (Liu-chiu in Sui times apparently designated all islands in the East China Sea, not just Formosa.) Incas destroyed Chan Chan in the 15th century.

Ethel saw by way of Edward Sapir's detection of Tibetan influences on Silk-Road Tokharian that that lingua franca would pronounce Shan-Shan "Sho-Shoni" since it vocalized a as a dull o and allowed no final or intervocalic a (so sonding Sha "Sho" and cutting off the n of the first syllable), while Tokharian genitive required an e (sounded i), making the second syllable "shoni." (Tokharian, written by Buddhists in Brahmi script and confused with also-Indo-European Sogdian/Yuchi, was parallel, differing in European character from Yuchi Scytho-Iranian [Berthold Laufer 1917].)

[Chemehuevi derives from Mojave tcamuweiva, which Chemehuevi George Laird said means "mixed with all." Carobeth Laird (1976) etymologized the tribal name Tuumontcokowi "black-beard-face," i.e. Black Beards; but they call themselves generally Niwiwi (The People). Their compatibility with Athapaskans in America could partly reflect an ultimate common homeland.]

AZTEC REVERENCE for "mythical" Aztalan (Nahuatl atl, "water," tzalan, "amidst") confirms upper midcontinent detour. James Scherz traced Aztalan to Sac-&-Fox Wisconsin on the Mississippi.

Ethel discerned [1991] turbulence at Han demise drawing or driving 'Azas (a Mongol/Tibetan/Turkish hybrid called Du-gu-hun in Chinese) to merge with Tecs of the Koko-nor (Khri Lake) region and keep moving jointly.

UTO-AZTEC, she further analyzed [1996], combines three tribal names used in the kingdom of Shan-Shan 313-663: 1) Uet, which Europeans heard as Uto, a Chinese variant of Yuchi (Chinese for Scythian "Moon People"); Mongol Az, abbreviating Ha-za or 'A-za, one of the names for the Du-gu-hun hybrid people; and Tec (or Tic), which Tibetan Chiang called themselves. Ethel traced Utes to that group of Scythian Great Yuchi who broke off from the main grouo when the Xiong-nu drove them from the Yuchi Kan-su homeland and settled Shan-Shan 2nd century B.C. as the main group proceeded on west to found the Kushan Empire in Sogdiana (Uzbekistan), Baktria (Afghanistan), and Pakistan.

Pai-Ute (White Yuchi) were the branch of Little Yuchi who spoke Italo-Celtic dialect and joined Chiang Tibetans in the Koko-nor and Nanshan areas and moved with them into Shan-Shan 445. Thus Ethel distinguished Ute and Paiute as Great and Little Yuchi among Uto-Aztecs [1996].

TOLTECS preceded Aztecs to Mexico. Starting with the Chiang name Tec for themselves, Ethel saw Tol probably derived from Tolan, the Chinese garrison-town NW of Liang-jo in the Kha-ba north of Khri Lake, NE Tibet. She inferred Toltec descent from Chinese officers at Tolan and their Chiang troops but did not explicitly submit that the 4th & 5th century Du-gu-hun overrunning of Koko-nor & Lop-nor inaugurated these warriors' flight to America.

Central Asiatics fleeing east had to get around China and past Xiong-nu Mongolia and had to continue a very long way to outreach either--analogous to the desperate problem of refugees from the Roman Empire fleeing west.

Quiche of the Toltec Popul Vuh should be Chiang Tibetan admixed with Chinese. Latter-8th-century Calalus-Jewish domination of Toltecs in Chihuahua and northward possibly so creolized their speech via ritual & administrative Hebrew that David Deal read the Popul Vuh alternatively as Hebrew recounting Genesis & Exodus, Moses hero. Stepping-stones across a parted sea sound, however, like the Aleutian Islands transposed.

MAYA STYLE, old at Toltec conquest, is repletely Chinese and Indonesian, its Olmec antecedents Xia/Shang and Malinese Mandingan. Michael Coe [Jan. 1996] discovered a Balinese identity with Maya in mental systems, cosmological systems (permutation calendar, eclipse cycles, etc.), temple ritual and construction, convergence with Chinese writing, and red-painted jade bead placed in the mouth of deceased. His apokalypsis throws indirect light on the curious fact that only three sets of yard-long tuned stones laid on a sounding-bed are known: two excavated by French anthropologists in Vietnam and a third set excavated by American archaeologists at the gate of Toltec Chichen Itza. No memory remains in either Vietnam or Yucatan of such an instrument, although we know later upright racks of smaller tuned stones in China and Korea.

Vida Chenoweth [1964] and post-Columbus slave-trade divest just as fantastic transmission of Malay marimbas to Madagascar to the Congo to Guatemala of mystery or dispute. If anthropologists had not known of Malay and identical Congo marimbas, they would automatically pronounce Guatemala's indigenous. Related problems include Burmese musical instruments surviving in Latin America, and Cherokee blowgun, which David Evans has traced from tropical Central America and Stephen Jett shown identical in detail to a North Borneo type.

I once heard Fell say that women at Lake Titicaca were weaving designs which he read as homey sayings in Micronesian and the weavers completed his sentences orally as if aware of syllables they were weaving. Borneo would be Micronesian, but we know too little to connect Cherokee blowguns and Peruvian blankets.

Chaman Lal had found a constant reminiscence of India in everyday habits of North-American Indians [Hindu America 1940]. Coe's Bali was/is Hindu, Sanskrit the lingua franca of Indonesia by the 3rd or 4th century A.D. Latter 6th-century collapse of the Buddhist Indo-Chinese Funan Empire generated the same disorderly roaming as Jo (Zhou/Chou), Qin, Han, & Sui collapses to the north but among already-veteran boat-peoples. Rise of the Hindu-Buddhist Khmer Empire comparably dislocated. Its 9th-13th-century Angkor Vat correlates with the c.1000-1200 main ziggurat at Toltec-Maya El Tajin, Veracruz. Perhaps it should not have been so mysterious that the latest Maya ziggurats look most Cambodian. Maya ziggurats had already looked Chinese, Javanese, and Japanese.

A Turkish woman told Ethel in Ankara 1986 that whenever she visited an American Indian reservation she thought she was back on the Anatolian plain. Many travelers besides Coe, Lal, and this Turk have noticed such affinities, notably the Berlin professor Adolf Bastian, who expounded eastern-Asia peoples 1866-71, etc. He was an able, not evil man, who decided this family resemblance resulted from a universal psychic unity (without rejecting diffusion).


ALL HUMANS of course share humanity plus much pre-humanity, but exhibit differing bones, customs, & language. In similar circumstances, humans tend to react similarly though not always. They have not invariably built adobe houses if unfamiliar with them, made blowguns or lithophones, worn earspools or turbans, smoked feathered-serpent calumets, spoken Uighur, Yuchi, Egyptian, Greek, Miicronesian, Polynesian, or Numidian, etc. Marija Gambutas pointed out [1981] that obese "Venus" figurines, widely though found in the Upper Paleolithic, occur only in a definable contiguous 1850 x 185-mi. zone, Pyrenees to Don.
Nearly every culture resisted innovation, venerating a remote-past model. "Primitive" societies, Mircea Eliade discerned 1949, sought to escape each intolerable day by reliving it as the first day of Creation. Robert Heilbronner called them "sleepwalking" [1985], Julian Jaynes "schizophrenic" [1977]. Independent invention did occur--often disguised variants. H.G. Quaritch Wales [Indianization of China 1967] coined "local genius" for modifications such as upturned eaves which in China give pagodas of India an impression they are indigenous Chinese even though integrsl to imported Buddhism. Look again at Maya temples, sculptures including elephant trunks, & murals, as well as Paul Shao's tomes: Asiatic Influences in Pre-Columbian Art 1976 and Origins of Ancient American Cultures 1983. There came a time--the Tang Dynasty--when thousands of pagodas and stupas made the capital Chang-an look more Indian than cities of India. Shao deplored stylistic insensitivity of American anthropologists.

Clusters of predominantly Goddess symbols on pottery, murals, kilims, and in sculpture which spread from the Neolithic Konya Plain to Balkans west and across the Tigris to China east--largely bypassing South Mesopotamia (which in the Bronze Age extended its influence to the Indus)--originated long ago but have remained in perpetual currency. When the same cluster, typified by triangle, diamond, block-meander, & stairstep designs in ingenious combinations, recurs in Navajo and Yuchi art with approximately the same meanings, we can suspect further extension and starting-over. Notice that Egyptian style ran separate, but it, too, crossed the Pacific as well as Atlantic.

EGYPTIAN MYTH of a grisly predynastic battle between Horus and Set does not spontaneously arise universally and not even in Egypt in the Paleolithic or most of the Neolithic. It recurs outside Egypt only in Egyption context, surely memorializing an historical turning-point important to Egyptian identity, either Gerzean victory over native-Amratian Upper Egypt, of Nekhen (city of Horus the Falcon) over Nubet for domination of Upper Egypt, or Upper Egyptian over either Abydos or the Delta.

Wherever we encounter Moses he is the same figure of a specific time and place, known beyond Palestine by migration of Jews and/or Christians who institutionalized his memory--important to their cultural identity. Gilgamesh may have journeyed to Bahrain and Buluchistan and indelibly impressed subsequent traditions that also quested for immortality, but Gilgamesh did not originate in any nascent city-state but Uruk, as fifth post-Flood king.

Robert Bly said [c.1992] the Grimm-Brothers tale Iron John published 1820 may be 10,000 or 20,000 years old, when castles, feudal kingdoms, gardeners, peasants, horse-riding, iron metallurgy, iron locks, keys for locks, or golden balls had not existed 10,000 or 20,000 years. Far from primeval or universal, this tale could not oirginate before its West-European medieval feudal context and, the brothers Grimm notwithstanding, remained barely known outside Germany. Bly also forced an interpretation foreign to the tale's symbolism and sequence. He, Joseph Campbell, et al. give an impression of legend/myth universality and timelessness, whereas legend/myths circulate only inside the orbit where known, which is not everywhere since the Stone Age.

Legends of Kanishka I did not predate his 78-A.D. coronation as Kushan emperor; of Oedipus before Akhnaton at 14th-century-B.C. Akhet-Aton; Kokopelli before aulos-tooting Ptolemy XI; El Cid before Rodrigo Diaz took Valencia 15 June 1094 [Richard Fletcher 1990]; heroism of Roland (governor of the Frankish March of Brittany) before Gascons ambushed Charlemagne's rearguard at Roncesvalles in the Pyrenees 778 A.D.; Quetzalcoatl before Bjorn Asbrandsson the "Braidavik Champion" landed in Yucatan from Iceland 986 [John S. Carroll 1994]; Burnt Njal before Viking colonization of Greenland; jatakas (Pali birth-stories of Buddha in prior incarnations) before Buddha; Parsifal (Persian Flower) before Mani preached Manichaeanism at the Sassanid-Persian court of Shapur I c.246 A.D. and eastward to China, thus also originally-Manichaean romances of the Grail (Persian graal, "coruscate pearl," symbol of Manichaean highest virtue, compassion) before the 2nd Crusade 1147-49 made them accessib;e to trouveres and by them to Minnesinger; wandering predatory knights on horseback through disorderly countrysides before feudal West Europe and its aristocratic rites of passage; Gallahad before Francis of Assisi; Esther before Achaimenid-Persian Xerxes deposed Queen Vashti Amestris at Susa his Year 3 (483 B.C.) during the Babylonian Captivity; Trojan-War "myths" before the Trojan War; Ocysseus' voyage before the post-Trojan War voyage itself (or a composite of IIIC-period voyages); nursery rhymes "Mary, Mary quite contrary," "Little Miss Muffet," & "Little Bo Peep" before misfortunes of Mary Queen of Scots; ad inf.

A universally recurring Flood myth usually refers to the same Flood, not one in unconscious racial memory that erupts independently in every nation but the actual sweeping of Persian-Gulf waters onto tectonically lowered South Mesopotamia (as the Zagros uprose) in Very-Late Ubaid c.3600 B.C. whose memory Ubaid survivors transmitted in subsequent Shumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, & Hebraic tradition. Myriad floods rampaged in antiquity either too late, ephemerally, or commonly to make an archetypal impression, whereas major centers including Ur, Tell al-Ubaid, & Eridu, indefinitely under water, went depopulated. Tell al-Ubaid stayed uninhabited; Eridu resumed no longer a city, only a sanctuary; Ur revived vigorously till channel-shift stranded.

We encounter three less-universal flood myths that also originated in nationally-momentous specific devastations: 1) that of 23rd-century-B.C. Sichuan & Yellow-River Valley during the "legendary" reign of Shun which "overtopped the mountains" and made a hero of Yu, who sent explorers to the ends of the earth and founded the Xia Dynasty; 2) Deukalion's Flood (tsunami) at Thera's eruption 1446/45 B.C. (Amonhotpe II Year 9) that gave rise to the Atlantis legend, which was Egyptian memory that Plato did not think to connect with its Greek counterpart even though the same cataclysm that sank "Atlantis" drowned Athens, according to Solon's Saite source, consistent with sea-floor bores showing ash-fall along the same NW/SE axis, mud-burial of the Kato Zakro palace (rediscovered by N. Platon 1960) plus severe earthquake damage through central Crete and pumice washed ashore at Gaza (Classical Greeks forgot the whole Minoan and all but last few generations of the Mycenaean era); and 3) the Gujarat coast 15th-century-B.C. submergence of Dwarka, which S.R. Rao verified by marine archaeology 1988 (the Mahabharata relates Sri Krishna submerging with his fortified city).

When courtly Athapaskans in remote primitive fastnesses of the McKenzie and Yukon sang of nightingales, doves, crocodiles, exotic flowers, and Jade Gate--Ethel pointed out--they betrayed an urban origin far from the frozen wastes of inner Canada in another time.

ALL PEOPLES seemed obsessed with their origin and then content to skip to the present or repetition of the First Day. Originating from underground which Yuchi and Hopi reenact in dances has antecedents back to Eridu, complicated by the labyrinth that we associate with Crete & Greece which Indians of the Southwest & Central America held sacred as Earth-Mother entrails, Panama Cunas in Egyptian death associations like solar boat. Hopi Spider-Woman origin traces back through Pacific islands to Hindu India. Yuchi & Mohammedan menstrual clot from the female sun has evident antecedents in Mesolithic Lykia. The Yuchi Breathmaster creator who molded mud in his image preserves a Bronze-Age Near-Eastern notion. Hopi know they have not always lived where they now dwell, but many tribes believed they originated where found. Contradictory hybrid origin-myths, like those of a duplicate Otherworld below or in space, or cemetery moon, have Old-World antecedents as do languages, although I do not know the Yuchi source of a realm of the Dead across a deep ravine where the sky clamps the earth--walkable across by mortals ("green" ones) in rhythmic intervals of separation and reclosing.

These and multifarious other convictions prove that language and superstition can survive civilization collapse, though memory of experience generally does not outlast interruption. When the literate few or designated rememberers succumbed, whole histories vanished. Recorded histories have also vanished in decay & burning. We cannot test the duration of human memory transmitted orally because it has never gone more than a few centuries uncontravened.

ACCORDING TO INTERFACES of 14 riveted pairs of lead crosses inscribed in bad Latin which Thomas Bent and Charles Maniere excavated from cementlike caliche at 3+-6+' depths 1924-25 on the once-voluminous Santa Cruz near Picture Rocks northwest of Tucson, a very large colony of Jews from Britain, Gaul, & Rome who venerated the cross and acknowledged the bishop of Rome their sovereign, conquered the Toltezus 775-90 A.D., wresting Rhoda (Red) from them as capital city of the "unknown land" Calalus. Uto-Aztec Hopis recount an unwilling exodus from Red (= Sun) City of the South (Palatkwapi, lit. "Red House") which they identify as Palenque in Chiapas or Casas Grandes in Chihuahua and regard Maya, Aztecs, & Toltecs aberrant Hopi. O.L. Hope by the mid-1980s concluded that Shoshoni-speaking Hopi, who shared the Maya "stepping-stone" myth, landed at Baja California. We can track them from their long pause in SE California to Utah, Idaho, & Wyoming.

Zena Halpern located a Rhoda in Roman South Gaul. Neil Steede identified Roman-style flat fired bricks at unique Late-Maya Comalcalco, Tabasco. The 132-A.D. Bar Kokhba Bat Creek Stone from Tennessee; the curse-prayer Arnold Murray translated on a Burrows Stone in Hebrew script of Bat-Creek type; Bar Kokhba coins from Kentucky; menorahs of the triangle-base type Zena detected on Burrows Stones; & the Los Lunas, N.M. Ten Commandments slab which Cyrus and Connie Gordon identifed Samaritan Hebrew all predated middle-medieval Bent artifacts.

An old, semiliterate scribe, self-identified OL (possibly his attempted equivalent of Hebrew-script bn, "son of" [Joseph]) who must have spoken Greek or Aramaic and learned to write official Latin in America from his Britain-born father and/or Joseph's standard Latin copybook, tried to indite Calalus history on the heavy crosses, devised solely for record preservation (independent invention). They lay with Hebrew-tagged ceremonial standards and harder-alloyed swords & spears as scattered in a terminal raid. Tons of caliche rose over them, suggesting something like a millennium accretion. The variable rate of lime-dissolving & redeposit is imperceptibly gradual. We know of no caliche formation since the 16th century that has recemented after fracture. Even if "somehow inserted" (Fell's words)--no one has demonstrated a way--, these heavy implements would have stood vertical instead of lying flat. Their lead is local, their manufacture crude compared to associated nehushtans & labarum.

The description of Rhoda fronting a plain surrounded by mountains fits Tucson, which seems rather a frontier garrison and ceremonial station. OL was anticipating Calalus doom. In his 900-A.D. final entry, avenging Toltecs were closing in. OL said King Israel III had freed them in or by 880, for which a sanhedrin banished him, but Israel IV in his Year 3 was decisively losing after an attempted resubjugation. OL's entries that mention founding new cities, Hopi memory of participating in Chaco-Canyon building, their Flute Clan which had dominated there, and Chaco Canyon excavations (macaw skeletons, etc.) showing southern connections are consistent (as scientists say) with imperial Calalus initiation of abruptly advanced Pueblo III at Pueblo Bonito, Tuzigoot, Mimbres, and other Uto-Aztec compounds that the Great Drought depopulated.

ORIGINALLY-MONGOL Du-gu-hun (onetime Xiong-nu slaves) took over Chinese Shan-Shan (present-day Charqliq) in the Southern-Tarim Lop-nor region, whose population then consisted of Du-gu-hun, Turkish Xiong-nu, Yuchis, Chinese, Chiang, and multi-ethnic Silk-Road merchants including Jews, Arabs, and Sogdians/Yuchis of Samarqand, their lingua franca Turkish Du-gu-hun, when King Sron-btsan Sgam-po of Tibet displaced them with Tibetans and renamed Shan-Shan Navadjo 663. Ethel surmised that this conquest impelled the long-distance Uto-Aztec migration to the land that Chinese traders (if not scholars), together with oasis-kingdom and Silk-Road Asiatics, already knew well.

Thus she converged with Harold Stirling Gladwin's date for this migration of c.700 A.D. She had begun from a recognition of a number of Uto-Aztec names that appear in NE Tibet and the S. Tarim-Basin kingdom Shan-Shan in early centuries of the 1st millennium A.D. She was following up the prodigious labors of Emil Pettitot published 1876-89 whom I confused 1993 with his better known younger contemporary Paul Pelliot, whose imposing works Ethel also knew and relied heavier on for her 1996 Uto-Aztec monograph. Her magnum opus on Dene & Na-Dene 1991 retraced the Uighur Turkish warrior flight from Genghis Khan after the Mongol defeat of Xi-Xia. Navajos e.g. conscripted into the Xi-Xia army from Navadjo eventually moved into the Uto-Aztec region as other Athapaskans of that flight moved into and next to the Algonquin. Introduction of horses accelerated Uto-Aztec/Athapaskan/Algonquin interaction 16th century on.

UTO-AZTEC OBLITERATED aboriginal languages where Uto-Aztecs settled, as Athapaskan where Athapaskans. So Algonquin was not an aboriginal language onto which transatlantic dominators grafted their languages but the supplanting creolized Mediterranean and Atlantic-European languages onto which Uto-Aztec and Athapaskan vocabularies grafted. Algonquin was still formulative in the Middle Ages and early modern period.

Assiniboin, Cree, and Sioux appear Uto-Aztecs who chose (like many Athapaskans later in the millennium) to remain in the North instead of wandering south who came sufficiently under the influence of higher-developed forest Algonquins to adopt Algonquin speech and internal ritual within the great Algonquin confederation, thus obscuring Uto-Aztec identity except in outward customs such as Tungus/Tarim portable tepees and warrior initiation rites instead of Algonquin rectangular wigwams and planting/harvest rites.

A penetration to midwest and eastern forests from the west coast might have taken more than a century but, within a range of five centuries, Central Asiatic vocabularies would be a palimpsest on Algonquin rather than the inverse. Algonquin penetration west meanwhile went as aggressively, since Algonquin speech spread over the Rockies including Tetons and survives in pockets on the north Pacific coast. Though it seems odd at first blush that west-based Asiatic tribes and east-based Mediterranean/Atlantic tribes influentially interacted to opposite coasts, their languages prove the oddity of reality.

CREE PALMYRENE SCRIPT on birch bark in the Peabody Museum--essentially that employed throughout the Cree-Ojibway division of Algonquin--shocked Fell 1976. Roman Emperor Aurelanius had destroyed the Arab caravan-depot Palmyra, Syria, 272. Fell presumed refugees over the Atlantic like Figuig-Oasis monks of extreme-eastern Morocco fleeing Vandals a century later. But to get around or through the Roman Mediterranean was already more formidable in the 3rd century than the whole arduous length of the Silk Road plus arctic Kamchatka-Current wafting. Ptolemy II Philadelphos, who tried to promote sea traffic to India, had already found merchants preferring the longer, costlier land route.

By way of wise ShupShe at Fort Wayne's Miami-Potawatomi Grand Medicine Lodge (Indiana), Fell made acquaintance by 1986 with Mide writing-systems of Cree-&-Ojibway medicine-men which he recognized as Egyptian and Kufi (Old Arabic). While Ojibways, who inhabited forests of Ontario, Wisconsin, Minnesota, later Michigan and plains of North Dakota and Montana (contiguous with Cree and Montagnais) spoke Algonquin, their long confusion as Chippewa (NE Tibetan for Uighurs [Stewart 1991]) intimates Central-Asian connection. The Chippewa language proved Athapaskan. Fell identified ship-captain salty Arab roots of the theretofore unclassified Zuni vocabulary. Parry's "European" stratum of Cree either included or missed Egyptian, Punic, Libyan, and Numidian unless lumped with "Arabic."